September 2018 1 120 Report
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Situational Factors
Cultural conceptions are also construed in relation to concrete
situational factors (Miller, 2006), which include the developmental
characteristics of the people who populate a particular social
setting. For example, parents’ expectations for their children’s
independence and interdependence change as children develop
(Raeff, 2006a; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). In addition, in
some contexts, parents may view independence and interdependence
as conflicting and thus prioritize one over the other
(Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008). The self-esteem research mentioned
earlier suggests that, in some situations, European-Americans
prioritize fostering relationships over an individual child’s
self-esteem.
Different components of independence and interdependence
may also be endorsed across contexts. Research in Japan shows
that learning the distinction between inner and outer, or private
and public, contexts is a key to understanding Japanese socialization
values (e.g., Bachnik, 1992 ⁄1995; Doi, 1985 ⁄1988).
Public or outer contexts include relationships with ‘‘meaningful
‘outsiders’ with whom one must enryo’’ (show restraint; Kondo,
1990, p. 150) in order to maintain social cohesion. However, people are more likely to express directly individual feelings in
private or inner contexts, even if they contradict the feelings or
opinions of others (Lebra, 1992⁄1995). Thus, independence in
public contexts involves self-control, while independence in private
contexts involves individual self-expression. This example
also points to varied interrelations between independence and
interdependence across contexts. In public contexts, social cohesion
is dependent on self-control. In private contexts, close relationships
foster self-expression.

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